Answered questions
Brain & memory
110 answered questions · 735 studies
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What have two landmark studies discovered about the role of your brain immune cells in ageing?
Microglia play an active role in brain ageing through fat accumulation and energy shortage, but most of the evidence still…
Moderate evidence
What does taurine do in your body?
Taurine has several demonstrable functions in your body: it supports the retina, heart, and brain, and helps cells maintain…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What role do hormones play in mental health complaints, and does current psychiatry fall short by only targeting symptoms?
Hormones, and cortisol in particular, play a demonstrable role in mental health complaints in a proportion of patients, but…
Moderate evidence
What does psilocybin do to your brain health?
Early clinical studies give cause for cautious optimism about psilocybin in depression, but use outside a supervised clinical…
Moderate evidence
What are the differences between ibogaine and psilocybin as treatments?
Psilocybin has more clinical evidence and a more favorable safety profile than ibogaine; ibogaine carries a real risk of…
Preliminary evidence
What does ibogaine do and what is it used for?
Ibogaine shows preliminary positive signals in opioid addiction, but the safety risks (including fatal cardiac arrhythmias)…
Preliminary evidence
Can ibogaine help with Parkinson's disease?
There is no research available that supports ibogaine as a treatment for Parkinson's disease; on the contrary, the available…
No · Insufficient evidence
What are white spots on the brain and do they increase the risk of dementia?
Pronounced white spots on a brain scan demonstrably increase the risk of dementia, but not every spot is equally concerning.…
Yes · Strong evidence
Is there a link between oral bacteria and the development of Alzheimer's disease?
There is a consistent association between oral bacteria and Alzheimer's disease, but a proven cause-and-effect relationship in…
Moderate evidence
What does research say about the relationship between lithium and memory?
Lithium slows cognitive decline in mild memory problems and early Alzheimer's disease, but for healthy people or as a…
Moderate evidence
Which lifestyle habits protect your brain health over the long term?
Cognitive activities, a plant-based dietary pattern, and regular exercise, preferably in combination, offer the best-supported…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Do ketone drinks do anything for your brain or performance?
For people with memory complaints the early signals are cautiously positive, but the studies are small and not conclusive. As…
Preliminary evidence
Does hearing loss increase your risk of dementia, and does a hearing aid help?
Hearing loss demonstrably increases the risk of dementia, and a hearing aid appears to help, but proven protection for…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does air pollution do to your brain in the long term?
Long-term exposure to air pollution, and fine particulate matter in particular, is associated with an increased risk of…
Yes · Moderate evidence
How much ashwagandha do you need per day?
For stress reduction, 240 to 500 mg per day already appears to have an effect; for safety, 600 mg per day has been studied for…
Yes · Moderate evidence
How many cups of green tea do you need per day?
Two to three cups of tea per day shows the most favourable association with cardiovascular health across several large…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does creatine do for people over sixty?
For people over sixty, creatine has reasonably well-supported benefits for muscle strength, muscle mass, and memory,…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Why does your memory work less well as you get older?
Memory loss with ageing is a normal biological process with multiple clearly demonstrated causes, but you can slow it down:…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does learning a new language help keep your brain healthy?
Actively using two languages throughout your life is associated with a lower risk of dementia and a brain that continues to…
Moderate evidence
Can you prevent dementia with your lifestyle?
Lifestyle does meaningfully influence your risk of dementia: one third of all cases are linked to modifiable factors such as…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What keeps your memory sharp in later life?
Getting good sleep, eating mindfully according to the MIND diet and engaging in targeted cognitive training have the strongest…
Moderate evidence
Does ergothioneine work as a longevity supplement?
Ergothioneine shows a positive signal in a small study of older adults with memory complaints, but it is too early for firm…
Preliminary evidence
Does years of insufficient sleep damage your brain?
Years of insufficient sleep damages the brain through multiple pathways at once, and some of that damage appears difficult or…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does a low dose of lithium help protect the ageing brain?
There are preliminary indications that low doses of lithium may offer brain protection, but the evidence is still too thin and…
Preliminary evidence
Does lion's mane really work for your brain?
Lion's mane shows cautiously positive signals for attention and working memory in small studies, but the evidence is still too…
Preliminary evidence
Does methylene blue really work for your energy and brain?
Do not take this as a supplement. Methylene blue is a registered medicine and industrial dye, not a food, and not authorised…
Preliminary evidence
Does the Wim Hof Method really work?
The WHM shows positive effects in small studies in specific patient groups, but whether those benefits are unique to the…
Preliminary evidence
Is magnesium L-threonate better for your brain?
MgT has preliminary indications that it raises brain magnesium more effectively and may support cognition, but the evidence in…
Preliminary evidence
Is there a relationship between changing body odour and Alzheimer's disease?
The available studies say nothing about whether Alzheimer's disease changes a person's own body odour. What is well documented…
How do I know whether my mood swings are hormonal or something else?
The cyclical pattern of your symptoms is the best distinguishing factor: if they occur only in the two weeks before your…
Can Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) detect Alzheimer's disease early?
MRS can signal brain abnormalities in early Alzheimer's disease, but is not yet ready for use as a standalone diagnostic tool.…
Moderate evidence
Can your gut microbiome affect your memory and concentration?
Your gut microbiome can influence your memory and concentration through several routes, but most of the evidence still comes…
Do I sleep worse if I am often alone or feel lonely?
Yes, loneliness is clearly associated with poorer sleep: you have more difficulty falling asleep, wake up more often during…
Why do some women suddenly experience anxiety symptoms after menopause?
Fluctuating oestrogen levels disrupt brain systems that regulate anxiety and mood, causing some women to experience anxiety…
Does loneliness accelerate your biological age?
Whether loneliness accelerates your biological age at the cellular level cannot be determined from the available studies.…
Is there a link between your hormones and the risk of dementia later in life?
There is solid evidence that thyroid hormones, sex hormones and stress hormones all play a role in dementia risk. The evidence…
What does poor air quality or fine particulate matter do to your memory in the long run?
Poor air quality, especially fine particulate matter, is consistently associated with worse cognitive performance and possibly…
What is the relationship between your thyroid and depressive symptoms?
There is a clear association between thyroid problems and depressive symptoms, although the precise direction of influence has…
Does regular sauna use protect your brain against decline?
There are indications that very frequent sauna use (four to seven times per week) is associated with lower rates of dementia,…
Preliminary evidence
Does watching a lot of television later in life affect your brain?
Watching more than 3.5 hours of television per day is associated with faster memory decline in people aged 50 and over,…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Why do damaged proteins accumulate in your cells as you age?
As you age, several systems that clear away damaged proteins weaken simultaneously and amplify each other's failure. This is…
Is it true that older people get less deep sleep, and what does that mean?
Older people demonstrably get less deep sleep, and this is associated with higher risks of dementia and lower growth hormone…
Yes · Strong evidence
What does high cholesterol do to your brain as you age?
High cholesterol in middle age likely increases the risk of dementia, but at older ages the relationship is less clear and…
Can thyroid problems worsen your memory and concentration?
A clearly underactive or overactive thyroid can noticeably affect your memory, concentration and mood. With mild thyroid…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does alcohol do to your cells and DNA in the long term?
Prolonged alcohol use damages cells and DNA in multiple ways simultaneously, from oxidative stress in the liver to broken DNA…
Does drinking coffee really help against dementia, or is that a myth?
Drinking 2-3 cups of coffee daily is associated with a lower dementia risk in several large studies, but this is not yet a…
Moderate evidence
What does loneliness do to your immune system?
Loneliness disrupts your immune system in multiple ways simultaneously: more inflammation, reduced antiviral defence, and…
Do I sleep worse when I am stressed, and does that create a vicious cycle?
Stress worsens your sleep, and poor sleep raises your stress levels: that cycle is well documented. Anyone who notices that…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does long-term loneliness do to your brain?
Prolonged loneliness is associated with a higher risk of dementia and persistent low mood, and damages the stress system.…
Does frequent mobile phone use increase the risk of brain tumours?
Normal mobile phone use does not appear to increase the risk of brain tumours, but with more than ten years of intensive use…
Moderate evidence
Is reading every day good for your brain in the long run?
Daily reading is probably good for your brain, but the evidence is largely observational; a firm causal relationship in…
Yes · Preliminary evidence
What are the signs that your gut flora is out of balance?
There are several recognisable signals, of which abdominal complaints such as persistent pain, diarrhoea, or constipation are…
Do your brains really shrink as you get older?
Your brain does indeed shrink with age, particularly in areas involved in memory and planning. High blood pressure accelerates…
What does a vitamin D deficiency do to your brain?
A vitamin D deficiency is consistently linked to a higher risk of cognitive decline, dementia, and other brain conditions, but…
Why are cells damaged when you don't get enough oxygen?
Oxygen deprivation damages cells through a chain of mechanisms: energy deficit, overstimulation of nerve cells, and an assault…
Do you age faster if you sleep too little?
Sleep deprivation demonstrably disrupts the processes that keep the brain young, particularly the clearance of harmful…
Does green tea help improve your memory or concentration?
Green tea offers a modest but real benefit for concentration and working memory, primarily thanks to the combination of…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does type 2 diabetes increase your risk of dementia?
Type 2 diabetes substantially increases the risk of dementia, and the younger you are at diagnosis, the greater that risk.…
Does getting more sleep improve my memory?
Sufficient sleep demonstrably benefits your memory: your brain processes and stores new information while you sleep. Too…
Yes · Strong evidence
What exactly is brain fog and where does it come from?
Brain fog is a real complaint that occurs in several conditions, but the precise causes have not yet been unravelled. If you…
What is the difference between REM sleep and deep sleep, and do I need both?
You need both sleep stages: deep sleep and REM sleep each do something different for your memory and brain, and getting a full…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Is there a link between depression and a higher risk of dementia?
Depression is strongly associated with a higher risk of dementia, though it remains uncertain whether depression causes…
Does fasting or eating less help your memory and concentration?
There are cautious indications that eating considerably less may improve your memory, but the evidence is still thin. Healthy…
Preliminary evidence
Is irritable bowel syndrome a real condition, or is it all in your head?
IBS is a real physical condition with measurable abnormalities in the gut and nervous system. The fact that psychological…
What does excess weight do to your brain in the long run?
Excess weight harms your brain in multiple ways at once: less brain tissue, weaker connections and a higher risk of dementia.…
What does your estrogen level do to your memory and concentration?
Oestrogen has a measurable influence on memory and concentration, and the decline during perimenopause is accompanied by…
Can stress really make your gut sick?
Stress really can make your gut sick: from abdominal pain and altered bowel habits to an increased risk of IBS and stomach…
Can high blood pressure in your 40s cause dementia later in life?
High blood pressure in your forties demonstrably increases your risk of dementia later in life, and early treatment appears to…
Does olive oil protect your brain against decline?
Extra virgin olive oil as part of the Mediterranean diet has been associated with less cognitive decline in multiple studies,…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does smoking do to your brain as you age?
Smoking accelerates brain ageing and increases the risk of dementia. Quitting smoking is one of the best-supported steps you…
Does your brain age faster than the rest of your body?
Whether your brain ages faster than the rest of your body varies from person to person, but the consequences are significant:…
Why do I dream so much, and is that good or bad?
Simply dreaming a lot is normal and need not be a cause for concern. However, persistent nightmares or dreams that you…
Moderate evidence
Is it bad for your brain if you don't get enough exercise for years on end?
Years of too little exercise is associated with a clearly elevated risk of memory problems and dementia. Moving more, even…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does cortisol do to your body in the long run when you are chronically stressed?
Chronic stress noticeably dysregulates your cortisol system: your daily rhythm flattens, your immune function, sleep and…
What does caffeine do to your memory and concentration in the long run?
Caffeine helps you stay more alert and focused when you are tired, but it does not make a well-rested brain smarter. If you…
Does metformin lower your risk of cancer or dementia?
In people with diabetes there are indications that metformin lowers overall cancer risk, but the evidence varies or is absent…
Moderate evidence
What does NAD+ do for your brain?
NAD+ is biologically crucial for your brain and declines with age, but whether supplementation via NMN or other means…
Does creatine affect dopamine levels?
In healthy people, creatine has no demonstrable effect on dopamine in the blood. Positive signals so far come exclusively from…
How does creatine improve mood and wellbeing?
Creatine does not demonstrably improve mood in healthy people without additional stressors; as a supplement during sleep…
Does creatine supplementation reduce brain fog?
Creatine may relieve cognitive complaints, but the effect depends strongly on your situation: people with chronic fatigue,…
Moderate evidence
Does gratitude or optimism benefit your health and longevity?
Greater optimism is associated in several large, long-running studies with a substantially lower risk of cardiovascular…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does creatine also help with memory and concentration?
Creatine has the strongest evidence for a memory effect in older adults aged 66 and over. In younger, healthy adults, the best…
Moderate evidence
Is sleeping in on the weekend beneficial, or does it fail to make up for sleep deprivation?
Sleeping in on the weekend temporarily relieves fatigue but does not genuinely make up for sleep deprivation: cognition,…
No · Moderate evidence
Does my sleep change as I get older, and is that normal?
Sleep changes in predictable ways as you age, and much of that is normal. Take notice if your sleep deteriorates…
Yes · Strong evidence
What does alcohol do to your brain in the long term?
Long-term heavy drinking demonstrably damages the brain, in part irreversibly. Stopping helps, but after years of heavy use it…
What does prolonged stress do to your memory?
Prolonged stress harms memory through measurable changes in the brain, and early-life stress increases the risk of memory…
Does the MIND diet help against dementia and cognitive decline?
Large observational studies link the MIND diet to a lower risk of dementia, but the only large controlled study found no…
Moderate evidence
Does a mentally stimulating life, such as studying or complex work, protect against dementia?
Longitudinal studies consistently show that mental challenge lowers the risk of dementia, but this is an association, not a…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Can you reverse early-stage forgetfulness with lifestyle changes?
Lifestyle changes can likely slow early-stage forgetfulness and sometimes partially improve it, but full reversal has not been…
Moderate evidence
Does heading the ball frequently in football, or sustaining a concussion, increase my risk of dementia later in life?
Professional footballers who head the ball frequently have a considerably higher risk of dementia than goalkeepers or people…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Is it normal to forget names more often around age 50, or should I be worried?
Forgetting names around age 50 is normal and biologically explainable. It is not a reason for immediate concern, but exercise…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Can you tell someone's biological age from their face?
Your face does emit biological signals, but it is too limited and too variable to measure your biological age accurately. Take…
Is there a real connection between your gut microbiome and your mood or brain?
There is a biologically plausible and, in animal research, robustly supported connection between your gut microbiome and your…
Do B vitamins (folate, B6) benefit your heart and brain?
Folic acid reduces stroke risk by approximately 16%, but probably only if you have a deficiency. For broader cardiovascular…
Moderate evidence
Does exercise really help with depression and anxiety?
Yes, exercise genuinely works: for mild to moderate depression it is as effective as medication, for anxiety disorders it is…
Yes · Strong evidence
Do brain-training games help prevent cognitive decline?
Cognitive training has a demonstrable, albeit modest, benefit for people with Alzheimer's disease or mild dementia, but does…
Moderate evidence
Can I test my risk of Alzheimer's with a blood test (p-tau217)?
A p-tau217 blood test can help diagnose Alzheimer's with high accuracy within specialised memory care. Ask your doctor which…
Yes · Strong evidence
Does poor sleep cause dementia sooner?
Poor sleep probably increases your risk of dementia, but ordinary insomnia does not make dementia inevitable. One exception:…
Yes · Moderate evidence
When should I be concerned about memory problems?
Not every instance of memory loss is worrying, but certain signs deserve prompt medical attention: sudden deterioration, the…
Moderate evidence
What can I do to keep my brain healthy as I age?
Combining more exercise with staying mentally active and eating a diet low in sugar and higher in omega-3 fatty acids…
Moderate evidence
Which blood values should I have checked to age healthily?
Blood sugar, blood lipids and inflammatory markers are the best-supported measurements if you want to age healthily.…
Preliminary evidence
How healthy are blueberries and other red/blue fruits for your brain?
Eating blueberries daily has a modest but consistent positive effect on memory and vascular health, particularly if you are…
Does a second language or music help protect the brain against ageing?
Speaking two or more languages daily appears to protect the brain in later life, with the strongest evidence for people who…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does staying socially and physically active protect against dementia?
Staying socially and physically active is probably your best lifestyle investment against dementia. The strongest results come…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does exercise keep my brain sharp?
Regular exercise demonstrably keeps your brain sharper, as long as serious cognitive decline has not yet set in. The…
Yes · Strong evidence
Does poor hearing increase my risk of developing dementia?
Poor hearing is associated with a modest but real increased risk of dementia. Have hearing loss assessed and treated promptly,…
Does deep sleep flush waste products from your brain?
Yes, your brain cleanses itself largely during sleep, and deep sleep appears to play the most important role in this.…
Do fish oil pills keep my memory sharp?
Fish oil may make a modest contribution to attention and memory, but the evidence is not yet strong enough to recommend a pill…
Moderate evidence
What can I concretely do to prevent dementia?
There are several concrete lifestyle factors within your control, but keep in mind that the recommendations are based on…
Moderate evidence
I have APOE4 -- how serious is that, and what can I do about it?
APOE4 substantially increases your risk of Alzheimer's disease, but at younger ages lifestyle factors such as blood pressure,…
Yes · Moderate evidence