Hormones
Testosterone, menopause and hormone therapy as you age.
99 answers, from 697 studies
Last updated: October 2026
Key questions
Do you lose muscle through the menopause?
Yes, the menopause accelerates muscle loss, and postmenopausal women lose more muscle mass than men of the same age. Strength…
How can you tell you are in perimenopause from your hormone levels?
In perimenopause, FSH rises first and inhibin B falls, while oestradiol initially remains normal or even elevated. A single…
Are erectile problems an early sign of heart disease?
Erectile problems caused by poor blood flow precede a heart attack or stroke by an average of 2 to 5 years. If you have this…
What does testosterone therapy tell us about all-cause mortality?
Testosterone therapy does not demonstrably reduce the chances of dying from any cause, but does not increase them either. Do…
Is intermittent fasting suitable for women over forty?
Intermittent fasting is a viable approach for women over forty, including after menopause, for weight management and improved…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Do phyto-oestrogens in soy reduce menopausal symptoms?
Soy isoflavones may reduce hot flushes somewhat, but the effect is modest and the studies contradict each other enough that…
Moderate evidence
Does omega-3 prevent postnatal depression?
Omega-3 supplements have not been shown to prevent postnatal depression, and as a treatment the evidence is still too…
No · Moderate evidence
Can GLP-1 agonists regenerate cells in the pancreas?
These medicines restore beta cells in rodents, but whether this also happens in people has not yet been demonstrated. Until…
Which hormone levels are characteristic of perimenopause and menopause?
Characteristic features are an early decline in AMH and inhibin B, followed by a rise in FSH and a late sharp fall in…
How do your hormone levels change throughout your menstrual cycle?
Your hormone levels follow a recognisable pattern throughout the cycle: oestrogen and progesterone rise and fall at set…
What hormone levels are associated with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)?
In PCOS, elevated male hormones, a disrupted LH-to-FSH ratio, and a reduced response to insulin are the most reliably…
What are normal hormone levels for women, and how do you get them tested?
There is no universal standard for hormone levels in women: they depend on age, cycle phase, and measurement method. Always…
Moderate evidence
Is intermittent fasting safe during pregnancy?
For healthy pregnant women, fasting does not appear to increase major risks such as preterm birth or low birth weight, but…
Moderate evidence
Can estrogen cream help with urinary tract inflammation?
Locally applied oestrogen cream demonstrably reduces the risk of recurrent urinary tract infections in women after the…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does vaginal oestrogen therapy do more than just relieve symptoms?
Vaginal oestrogen does more than relieve symptoms: it roughly halves the risk of recurrent urinary tract infections and…
Strong evidence
What role do hormones play in mental health complaints?
Hormones, and cortisol in particular, play a demonstrable role in mental health complaints in a proportion of patients, but…
Moderate evidence
How do you get your hormone levels tested during perimenopause?
Hormone tests during perimenopause are difficult to interpret: AMH is the most practical option, but does not reliably predict…
Moderate evidence
Which hormone levels are tested during menopause?
During menopause, the hormones measured most commonly are FSH, LH, oestradiol, progesterone, testosterone and AMH; elevated…
How does your lipid profile change after menopause?
After menopause, the lipid profile demonstrably worsens due to the decline in oestrogen. Regular exercise and moderately…
Moderate evidence
Why do bones become more brittle after menopause, and what can help?
Menopause causes bone loss because oestrogen disappears and disrupts the balance between bone breakdown and bone formation.…
Moderate evidence
What can help women increase their libido?
There are several well-supported options depending on your life stage: for women after menopause, transdermal testosterone has…
Moderate evidence
Do your hormones influence how quickly you age?
Hormones do influence ageing, but do not control it entirely. Fat distribution, muscle mass and inflammatory processes are all…
Does an adrenal cocktail actually work?
An adrenal cocktail does not work, because the condition it is supposed to treat does not exist as a recognised diagnosis. If…
No · Strong evidence
Does fadogia agrestis increase your testosterone?
Do not use it. There is barely any human evidence that fadogia agrestis raises testosterone, it is not authorised for sale in…
Insufficient evidence
Does hormone therapy help women age more healthily?
Hormone therapy relieves menopausal symptoms well and shows positive indications for bones and metabolism, but the effects on…
Moderate evidence
What does menopause do to your risk of cardiovascular disease?
Menopause demonstrably increases your risk of cardiovascular disease, primarily through unfavourable changes in fat…
Does shilajit actually work as a supplement?
Shilajit has shown positive results for specific goals, such as testosterone in men aged 45 to 55 and bone healing, but it…
Moderate evidence
Does boron raise your testosterone?
The two randomised studies in men show no effect on testosterone; the only small study that did find a rise in men had no…
No · Preliminary evidence
Does tongkat ali actually work for your testosterone?
Do not use it, even though it probably does raise your testosterone. The European food safety authority EFSA found signs that…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does the menopause do to your gut bacteria?
During the menopause, specific bacterial species in your gut shift and your gut bacteria process oestrogen less actively.…
How do I know whether my mood swings are hormonal or something else?
The cyclical pattern of your symptoms is the best distinguishing factor: if they occur only in the two weeks before your…
What is the connection between the thyroid and the immune system?
There is a clear and well-defined connection: autoimmune diseases of the thyroid arise because the immune system attacks the…
Does excess weight really make your hormones worse?
Excess weight disrupts your hormones in multiple ways simultaneously, and this is not a coincidental association. In men,…
Can an unhealthy diet cause puberty to start earlier?
A calorie-rich diet high in animal protein and low in fibre increases the likelihood of earlier puberty in girls, especially…
Yes · Moderate evidence
How does your body fat affect hormone production as you get older?
Body fat has a considerable influence on your hormonal balance as you age: more abdominal fat disrupts insulin sensitivity,…
Can hormones explain why women live longer on average than men?
Sex hormones likely contribute to women's longer lifespan, but they do not fully explain the difference. Social factors also…
What does caffeine do to your stress hormones when you drink a lot of it?
High caffeine intake raises your cortisol, especially during stress or exercise and later in the day; you partially adapt to…
Can a vitamin D deficiency affect your hormones?
A vitamin D deficiency disrupts hormone levels, primarily through a rise in parathyroid hormone PTH, which affects your bones,…
Does the amount of muscle mass you have affect your hormone balance?
More muscle mass improves your insulin sensitivity and is associated with more favourable hormone values after training, but…
Why do you develop thyroid problems after giving birth?
After delivery, the brake on the immune system lifts abruptly, which can trigger inflammation in women with an underlying…
Can low blood sugar disrupt your hormones, and how do you notice it?
Low blood sugar immediately raises stress hormones and causes symptoms such as trembling, sweating and irritability. People…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does chronic sleep deprivation do to your fertility?
Chronic sleep deprivation and frequent insomnia have been linked in several large studies to a lower chance of conception and…
Do male hormones affect how quickly men age?
Declining testosterone measurably accelerates ageing of muscles, bones and sexual function, but the links to mood and skin are…
What does too much or too little iodine do to your thyroid?
Both too little and too much iodine can disrupt the thyroid; make sure you get enough each day, but avoid large supplements…
Why do women experience anxiety symptoms after menopause?
Fluctuating oestrogen levels disrupt brain systems that regulate anxiety and mood, causing some women to experience anxiety…
Is there a link between hormones and the risk of dementia?
There is solid evidence that thyroid hormones, sex hormones and stress hormones all play a role in dementia risk. The evidence…
What does using steroids (as in sport) do to your bones?
Steroids in sport appear to stimulate bone formation in the short term, but they disrupt your hormonal balance in a way that…
What does taking the pill for a long time do to your hormones after stopping?
After stopping the pill, your hormone balance generally recovers within a few weeks to months, regardless of how long you have…
Can low progesterone levels cause symptoms before menopause?
Low progesterone levels can cause symptoms before menopause, but whether it is the true cause or a secondary finding has not…
Preliminary evidence
What do thyroid problems have to do with osteoporosis?
Both an overactive and an underactive thyroid increase the risk of osteoporosis. If you have a thyroid condition, it is wise…
Does sunlight affect your hormones, and if so, how?
Sunlight affects multiple hormones simultaneously: it stimulates vitamin D and beta-endorphin, suppresses melatonin, and can…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Can eating disorders such as anorexia cause lasting bone damage?
Anorexia can cause lasting bone damage, especially when the illness begins during puberty. Early recovery is crucial; speak…
What is the relationship between your thyroid and depressive symptoms?
There is a clear association between thyroid problems and depressive symptoms, although the precise direction of influence has…
Do men need estrogen for their health?
Yes, men need oestrogen for strong bones, healthy blood vessels, and fertility. Both a deficiency and an excess are harmful,…
What does pregnancy do to your hormone balance in the long run?
Pregnancy and breastfeeding bring measurable, sometimes long-lasting hormonal changes, of which the genital and urinary…
Can stress make you infertile?
Extreme or prolonged stress that disrupts the menstrual cycle can harm fertility; whether ordinary daily stress causes…
Preliminary evidence
Can thyroid problems worsen your memory and concentration?
A clearly underactive or overactive thyroid can noticeably affect your memory, concentration and mood. With mild thyroid…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What are hormone disruptors, and are they really found in everyday products?
Hormone disruptors are demonstrably present in a great many everyday products and are measurable in the human body. Complete…
Strong evidence
Does intermittent fasting help improve your insulin levels?
Fasting probably improves your insulin levels, but most studies are small and short-term. Eating early in the day appears to…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Can exercise really improve your hormone levels as you get older?
Yes, exercise demonstrably raises several hormone levels in people over 40. The strongest practical benefit lies in muscle…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Is it true that women age more slowly biologically than men?
Multiple studies confirm that women are biologically younger than men of the same age, but women also spend their extra years…
Why do you sleep worse as you get older?
Sleeping worse with age is well documented and has multiple causes, including brain changes and, in women, the menopause.…
Moderate evidence
What does chronic stress do to your weight in the long run?
Research shows that chronic stress increases the likelihood of weight gain over the long term, particularly belly fat, through…
Can eating too little disrupt your hormones?
Even a temporary, substantial calorie deficit can disrupt sleep and reproductive hormones in healthy women; the timing of your…
Yes · Moderate evidence
How does your gut microbiome influence your hormone balance?
Your gut microbiome drives multiple hormones through enzymes, fermentation products and bile acids, ranging from oestrogen to…
What does alcohol do to your hormones when you drink it regularly?
Regular heavy drinking demonstrably disrupts multiple hormonal axes simultaneously, with consequences for fertility, stress…
Does using the contraceptive pill increase my risk of cancer?
The pill demonstrably lowers the risk of ovarian and uterine cancer, but slightly raises the risk of breast cancer with…
Moderate evidence
Can women preserve their fertility longer through lifestyle choices?
Lifestyle influences your fertility, but far from everything works as hoped: losing weight when you are overweight has the…
Preliminary evidence
Does menopause accelerate skin ageing?
Menopause noticeably accelerates the loss of collagen, moisture retention and skin thickness, but spots and skin cancer are…
What does your estrogen level do to your memory and concentration?
Oestrogen has a measurable influence on memory and concentration, and the decline during perimenopause is accompanied by…
Can your thyroid be normal on a test but still cause symptoms?
Yes, a normal test result does not rule out thyroid-related symptoms. If you continue to have symptoms after a normal result,…
Can poor sleep permanently throw your hormones out of balance?
Poor sleep measurably disrupts your hormones, but 'permanently' is too black and white: with short-term sleep deprivation much…
What does chronically high cortisol do to your belly fat and blood sugar?
Chronically high cortisol demonstrably increases deep belly fat and disrupts blood sugar regulation, which over time promotes…
What does chronic stress do to your cortisol in the long term?
Chronic stress noticeably dysregulates your cortisol system: your daily rhythm flattens, your immune function, sleep and…
What is a healthy HbA1c value?
In healthy adults, a normal HbA1c falls between roughly 4.79% and 6.15%, with an average of 5.47%. If your value is above…
Do black cohosh or red clover help with hot flushes during menopause?
Red clover may slightly reduce hot flushes; for black cohosh the evidence is contradictory. Both products may be an option if…
Preliminary evidence
Can you delay menopause with lifestyle or diet?
Avoiding smoking, eating less red meat, and eating more citrus fruit and oily fish appear to have a favourable influence on…
Preliminary evidence
What helps against menopause symptoms like hot flushes and mood swings?
Hormone therapy works best against hot flushes and night sweats. Those who cannot or do not wish to use it can choose from…
Strong evidence
What complaints are most common during menopause?
The most common menopausal complaints are joint and muscle pain, fatigue and sleep problems; hot flushes are the most…
Does menopause increase the risk of joint pain?
Menopause increases the risk of joint pain and osteoarthritis in most women; it helps to avoid excess weight, stay active, and…
Does my growth hormone decline with age, and does that matter?
Your growth hormone does indeed decline sharply with age. Reversing that with hormone injections offers little benefit in…
Yes · Strong evidence
Is testosterone important for women?
Testosterone is a physiologically relevant hormone for women, with the strongest evidence for sexual desire and sexual…
Do men get osteoporosis too?
Men do indeed get osteoporosis, and the consequences of a fracture are on average more serious for them than for women. Only 1…
Does the menopause disrupt my sleep, and what can help?
The menopause genuinely disrupts your sleep, mainly through hot flushes and hormonal changes. A talking therapy designed…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Does my weight and metabolism change during the menopause transition?
During the menopause transition, your body composition changes profoundly: more fat mass, less muscle and more dangerous…
What does the stress hormone cortisol do to my ageing?
Chronically elevated cortisol accelerates muscle loss and disrupts your metabolism, and that effect is real. Good sleep and…
Does it make sense to have your hormones tested if you feel listless?
If, alongside listlessness, you also have other complaints such as weight gain, feeling cold, or mood problems, blood tests…
Yes · Moderate evidence
What does the menopause do to my heart and bones in the long term?
In the long run, menopause increases your risk of cardiovascular disease and bone loss, and that effect is greater with an…
Does testosterone decline in men with age?
Testosterone genuinely declines in men with age. Testosterone therapy is well supported only in men with established…
Yes · Strong evidence
Can you counteract DNA damage from ageing through your lifestyle?
Quitting smoking, exercising regularly and eating plenty of vegetables demonstrably reduce DNA damage; antioxidant supplements…
Yes · Moderate evidence
How do I know if I am at risk of osteoporosis?
You can get a good sense of your risk based on age, sex, hormonal history, medication use and lifestyle. If you have multiple…
Strong evidence
Is hormone therapy for the menopause safe and worthwhile?
Hormone therapy is worthwhile for menopausal symptoms and bone protection, but safety depends strongly on when you start,…
Yes · Strong evidence
Does your libido decline after 40, and what can you do?
A decline in libido after 40 is normal but not inevitable. For men with a confirmed low testosterone level and associated…
Yes · Moderate evidence
Do DHEA or growth hormone help against ageing, or are they risky?
For healthy older adults without a hormonal disorder, DHEA offers little benefit and is not without risk. If you have a…
No · Preliminary evidence
Does the male menopause exist?
The male menopause is genuinely real, but it progresses so gradually that many men do not recognise their symptoms as…
What exactly happens during perimenopause, and what helps?
Perimenopause brings symptoms caused by hormonal fluctuations, ranging from hot flushes and sleep problems to bone loss and…
Moderate evidence
Which supplements actually help with menopause?
Red clover isoflavones and black cohosh have the strongest evidence for reducing hot flashes; soy isoflavones also help to…
Moderate evidence
How can you improve sperm quality and quantity when you are over 40?
No interventions have yet been proven to reliably improve sperm quality in men over 40; antioxidants show a signal but the…
Preliminary evidence
Does testosterone help after 50, and is it dangerous?
Testosterone can be worthwhile for men over 50 with a medically confirmed testosterone deficiency, but it is not a treatment…
Yes · Strong evidence
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Estrogen use linked to lower Alzheimer’s risk
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Aging tissue makes breast cancer more likely in older women
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1 min
Thymus hormone restrains aging inflammation and cancer
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Estrogen receptor shapes the adolescent brain
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Aging ovaries lose their cellular coordination
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NAD in the placenta sets when labour starts
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Melatonin shields the liver from alcohol damage
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